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Handbook of Yosemite National Park (1921)
by A. L. Kroeber

Next: Ideals and Policy of the National Park Service•Contents•Previous: History of Yosemite

INDIANS OF YOSEMITE

By A. L. Kroeber

Professor of Anthropology and Curator of the Anthropological
Museum, University of California

TheIndians of Yosemite belong to a group or familyknown as the Miwok who, before the white man came,owned the tract from the Cosumnes River on the northto the Fresno on the south, and from the crest of theSierra Nevada to the edge of the San Joaquin Valley.The name Miwok is not strictly a tribal appellation; itis simply the word in the language of these Indianswhich means 'people.' In default of any specificdesignation for them, this term Miwok has beenapplied in distinction from other groups of aborigines.Of such groups, there may be mentioned as neighbors:the Maidu to the north in the Sierra; the Yokuts to thesouth in the foothills and to the southwest in the SanJoaquin Valley; and the Mono to the south in the highSierra, and to the east in Owens Valley and aboutMono Lake. Excepting the Mono (who are an offshootfrom the Paiutes and other Shoshoneans ofNevada and the Great Basin country) the othergroups of Indians adjacent to the Miwok are verysimilar to them in physical type and customs, and evenshow a probable, although distant, relationship tothem in speech. In short, the Miwok are typical andrepresentative California Indians, and in this capacityform part of the large body of tribes known as 'Diggers.'This is, however, a misleading name; partlybecause it carries a tinge of contempt, and still morebecause it lumps together a variety of nationalitiesthat sometimes differed pretty thoroughly in theirspeech or were even unaware of one another's existence.For this reason the more accurate terms Miwok,Maidu, and Yokuts are preferable.

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ORIGIN

The origin of these Sierra Nevada tribes is notdefinitely known. There can, however, be no seriousdoubt that they form part of the generic AmericanIndian race and that their ultimate origin must besought wherever the source of this division of mankindmay have lain. While no one is yet in a position tospeak dogmatically on this matter, all indicationspoint to the Indians having come at some time in thefar past from Asia, probably by the Bering Strait andAlaska route. It is clear that in his bodily type theIndian more nearly resembles the Mongolian of EasternAsia than any other variety of the human species.The long, straight, stiff hair, one of the most valuablemarks in race classification, is alone sufficient to establisha strong presumption in this direction. As towhen this migration of the first inhabitants of Americaout of Asia took place, there is growing up a fairlyunanimous concensus among anthropologists that thismovement must have occurred at about the time thatthe Old Stone Age was giving place to the New inEurope; that is to say, in the period at which chippedstone tools were being replaced by polished ones, andthe ax, bow and arrow, textiles, agricultural implements,and domestic animals were becoming part ofthe heritage of the species. These steps in advanceare believed to have occurred about ten thousandyears ago. We may therefore say roughly that somewhereabout 8000 B.C.—with an allowance of a fewthousand years either way as a margin for error—theAmerican Indian became established on this continentand began his diffusion.

California was probably not very long in beingreached; a mode of life adapted to local conditionswas worked out, and with this the natives wereapparently content, and their development progressedonly slowly. They have left some traces of theiroccupancy in ancient village sites, shell mounds, andthe like. Here the less perishable of their utensils,such as mortars, pestles, pipes, knives, arrow points,awls, beads, and other objects of stone, bone, and soforth, have been preserved. In one of the mostfavorable localities on the shores of San FranciscoBay careful computations have been made as to theage of these deposits, with the result that the lowerlevels of the shell mounds there have been estimatedto date back at least 3000 years. The implements atthese lower levels are ruder than those found near thetops of the mounds; but they are after all of the sametype and even rather similar to those used by themodern Indians of the State, including the Miwok.We are therefore justified in assuming that nativecustoms evolved very slowly in California, and thatthe ancestors of the Miwok and of the YosemiteIndians for a very long time past have lived verymuch in the manner and under the conditions inwhich they were discovered by the whites seventyyears ago.

DECREASE OF NUMBERS

The Miwok probably numbered at least tenthousand, but the population decreased with terrifyingrapidity after the advent of the white man. Someof the nearer groups of them were taken to the FranciscanMissions on the coast and there died off or becamemixed with other tribes. The miner and rancherquickly overran the Miwok habitat after 1849. TheIndian was crowded into the less desirable nooks; hisnative food supply was preëmpted; whiskey and newdiseases against which he had no immunity wereintroduced and resulted in a startling mortality; andthe general change in mode of life—new types ofhabitations, clothing, diet, labor, etc.—accentuatedthe effect of these diseases. The consequence wasthat in the sixty years between their first serious contactwith the white man until the census of 1910, theMiwok lost more than ninety percent. of their numbers.This census, which may not be wholly complete butwas by far the most accurate ever made as regardsIndians, enumerates only about seven hundred ofthem, and of these a fair proportion are mixed bloods.The number is still shrinking, but fortunately with lessrapidity than formerly. The Indian has begun toadapt himself to civilized life, and has acquired someresistance to our diseases. The Miwok therefore bidfair to maintain themselves as a diminishing remnantfor some time longer, and quite likely even a smallfraction of them may survive permanently.

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The Miwok were not divided into tribes in the usualsense of the word. They recognized very little politicalauthority. They were broken up into small localgroups, little larger than village communities, each ofwhich admitted the headship of some chief and allowedim a rather poorly defined amount of influence ontheir conduct. These numerous little bodies namedeach other, generally, after the localities which theyinhabited. Thus the Yosemite Indians as a bodywere ordinarily known to the other Miwok as theAwanichi, after Awani, the largest or best knownvillage site in the Valley, located not far from the footof Yosemite Falls. In the same way a group south ofYosemite was called the Pohonichi, because in summerthey ranged northward to the Valley in the region ofBridalveil Creek, the famous falls of which are knownas Pohono.

FOOD: THE ACORN

The Yosemite Indians were in the hunting stage;that is, they never farmed nor raised domestic animals.Actually, however, only a small part of their diet camefrom game. They probably took as many pounds offish each year as of animal flesh, and a still largerportion of their food was wild vegetable products.Among these the acorn was preëminent, and evento-day the caches or bins for the storage of thesenutritious nuts can occasionally be seen in the Valley.These are rude affairs, eight or ten feet in height, constructedof brush much like a long and deep bird'snest, and set between four or five posts to keep thereceptacle and its contents off the ground. They fulfilltheir function of food conservation with onlymoderate success, since one rarely approaches one ofthese caches without seeing a squirrel run out from ahole which it has wormed through the brush walls.Acorns, however, are plentiful in most parts of Californiaand before the American introduced hogs theywere superabundant, so that the Indians could affordto share part of their crop with these unbidden visitorsand still have enough left for their own needs.

Acorns contain more or less tannin. The Indianwomen leached this out with hot water after the nutshad been shelled and pounded with a pestle in a stonemortar. The latter usually was nothing more than ahole in the surface of some convenient outcrop ofgranite. Frequently a number of these mortar holeswere assembled in one spot; these were roofed overwith branches, and in the shade of such an arbor theIndian women were wont to gather for hours at a timeto wield the heavy pestle and meanwhile indulge in thegossip of which they were not less fond than theirCaucasian sisters. After the acorns were pulverized,the meal was sifted and then cooked in baskets into athin mush or gruel—the famous 'acorn soup' whichwas the staff of life to most of the California Indians.As pottery and iron vessels were unknown, cookinghad of necessity to be done in water-tight baskets. Abasket cannot of course be set over a fire, so theIndian woman had perforce to bring the fire into herfood, as it were. This she did by heating stones aboutthe size of her fist, picking these up with a pair ofsticks, and dropping them into the liquid, to whichthey communicated their heat until the mass boiled,The stones were then removed and the gruel was readyfor consumption.

THE BOW: HUNTING AND WAR

The Miwok bow was from three to four feet longand had its back heavily covered with a layer of sinewsto give added toughness and elasticity. It was arather narrow weapon, and the sinew was thickenedat the ends and then curled back on itself in a characteristicshape. Such at least was the bow used inwarfare and for hunting large game. For rabbits,gophers, and birds, which can be approached closely,a ruder weapon without the sinew backing sufficed.For such purposes, too, the arrow was often a mereshaft, whereas the real hunting and war bow shotarrows which were foreshafted and tipped with delicatepoints of flint or obsidian. The latter material, ablackish, volcanic glass, the Miwok obtained by tradefrom the Mono Indians.

With all its inferiority to firearms, the bow is apowerful instrument within its effective range. Agood weapon speeds an arrow with an initial velocityof 120 feet per second. It has definite killing power upto fifty yards, and at double that distance can easilyinflict wounds that subsequently prove fatal. It tearsthe tissues more than a modern bullet, and frequentlyproduces internal hemorrhages from which the victimbleeds to death, or which so weaken game thatit can be followed up and overtaken. The longestattested flight for an arrow is more than a quarter of amile, but this record was made with a compositeTurkish bow and especial long range arrows. TheIndians never attempted shooting over such distances.They depended rather on knowing the habits of deerand elk and creeping up on them. A favorite devicewas for the hunter to cover himself with a deer hideand set on his head a stuffed deer's head. In this wayhe attracted the curiosity of his quarry without alarmingit, and was often able to approach very close to it.

When the Miwok fought, which was not very often, itmost frequently took on the form of a feud for revenge.They usually shot at each other at fairly long range;enough, at any rate, to make possible the dodging ofarrows. Each line of warriors therefore capered anddanced about to render it difficult for their opponentsto take aim, and jerked forward and sidewise as theysaw arrows coming. As might be expected, casualtieswere rather light. It was only when one party couldambush another, or pounce on a settlement asleep justbefore daybreak, that fatalities would run high.

HABITATIONS

The houses of the Yosemite and other MiwokIndians were rude affairs, built, according to locationand abundance of materials, either of thatch, slabs ofbark, or with a covering of earth. In Yosemite itselfthe cedar-bark house predominated. This was a conicallean-to with the slabs laid on several deep, andwhile not entirely wind-proof it afforded reasonableshelter. Most of the huts were small, probably notover ten or twelve feet in diameter. One or two ofthem may still be seen at the time of this writing,though they present rather a sorry appearance ofgunnysacks, worn-out quilts, and pieces of sawnlumber mixed in with the bark slabs.

In the lower foothills, the native house was morefrequently of the wigwam type, thatched with grass,rushes, or brush; and in parts of the San JoaquinValley the earth lodge was typical. This was moreor less excavated and covered with a heavy layer ofearth laid on a roof of poles and brush supported bystout timbers. The Miwok used the earth lodge mainlyfor their dance- and sweat-houses. The formerwere large affairs up to forty or more feet in diameter.The latter were much smaller edifices in which the mendaily sweated themselves for their health and physicalcomfort. The Yosemite Indians were about at theedge of the habit of building earth-covered dancehouses. The more northerly Miwok and the tribesbeyond used them regularly in every village of anyconsequence, whereas the Yokuts, to the south ofYosemite, did not erect earth lodges.

THE NAME YOSEMITE

The word 'Yosemite' means Grizzly Bear in theMiwok language. Its more exact form is 'üzümati'or'ühümati.' The name became definitely attachedto the Valley, and to the band of Indians that made ittheir headquarters, from the time of their first contactwith Americans. There are several explanations. Onestory has it that an unarmed young Indian fought offa fierce grizzly bear with only a stick, and that thisexploit led to the adoption of the name as a sort ofheraldic crest by his group. Somehow this legendgives the impression of white man's imagination; itdoes not have the true ring of Indian tradition.Another account is that Tenaya (who was the chief ofthe Yosemite band at the time of the discovery andwhose name is perpetuated in that of the canyonleading into the Valley) and his people lived in acountry infested with bears. In addition, the bandwas reputed to consist of unusually fierce warriors.Therefore the sobriquet 'Grizzlies' was bestowedupon them by the neighboring tribes. This storyalso does not seem wholly in accord with knownprinciples of Indian nomenclature; although Dr. C.Hart Merriam says that the inhabitants of Hokokwila,the native village where the Sentinel Hotel now stands,were called 'Yohamite,' that is, 'Ühümati' orGrizzly Bear. The true explanation of the name ofthe Valley is probably to be found in a peculiar socialinstitution which the Yosemite Indians shared withthe other Miwok.

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This entire nation is everywhere divided into twogroups or 'moieties' or halves, as we might call them,which intermarry. The first social law of theseIndians is that a man must always take to wife awoman from the other moiety. The children followthe father, and whether boys or girls are restrictedin their choice of wife or husband to the secondmoiety, that of their mother. In this way the lineageis carried on uninterruptedly generation aftergeneration.

These two intermarrying halves of the Miwoknation have the elements land and water as theirdesignations or totems, and are known as Tunuka andKikua. The division is made more picturesque byassigning every known species of animal and plant toone or the other division. Thus the bear and mostland animals and birds belong to the land side. Fishes,water animals, and plants and a few exceptional onesfrom the land—especially the deer and coyote—areassociated with water. In some parts of the Miwokcountry the people therefore speak of the 'Blue Jay'and 'Bullfrog' instead of the land and water divisions.In the Yosemite region it was customary to denominatethe land side 'Grizzly Bears' and the water side'Coyotes.' Furthermore, within Yosemite Valley, allthe villages on the north side of the Merced River weresupposed to belong to the Grizzly Bear division, andthose on the south the Coyote. It seems more thanprobable that this local name of one of these two sidesor divisions came to be applied, through some misunderstandingon the part of the whites, to all theIndians of the valley, and then to the valley itself.

[Editor's note:For the correct origin of the word Yosemite see'Origin of the Word Yosemite.'—DEA]

VILLAGES IN YOSEMITE

The points on the floor of Yosemite at which theIndians at one time or another lived or camped arenumerous. Dr. C. Hart Merriam, the greatest livingauthority on these people, enumerates about fortysuch spots and supplies the information which heobtained about them and verified from the Indians.The principal sites are, in order down stream on thenorth side of the Merced and proceeding up streamagain on the south side: Wiskala, at the foot of RoyalArches; Yowachki, near the mouth of Indian Canyon(this site is still occupied by a few families); Awaniand Kumini, near Yosemite Falls, the former being themore important, in fact recognized as the largest andmost permanent settlement in the Valley in aboriginaldays; Hakaya, near the Three Brothers; Kisi andChuchakala, opposite the last, on the south side of theriver; Loya, at Sentinel Rock; Hokokwila, where theSentinel Hotel now stands; Tuyuyuyu, near theLe Conte Memorial Lodge; and Omato, between CampCurry and the Happy Isles.

It should be said, however, that these villages werepreëminently summer encampments. Now and thena few families with an unusually favorable stock ofsupplies hoarded up, might remain in the valley fromautumn to spring, but the majority of the inhabitantsannually retreated to the canyon of the Merced Riverbelow El Portal in order to avoid the heavy snowsof the 4000-foot altitude of Yosemite. Down belowthey waited, no doubt impatiently, for spring to comeand permit them to resume occupation of the mostfavored of their hunting and food-gathering grounds.It may be added that the Indians, as their legendsclearly indicate, were pretty fully aware of the extraordinaryscenic features of the Valley, and derivedmuch satisfaction from them; although with theirnative stolidity they no doubt expressed themselvesless extravagantly than is the Caucasian habit.

The number of the band at the time of discovery isnot accurately known, but may be estimated to havebeen in the vicinity of two hundred and fifty souls.

ENCOUNTERS WITH THE AMERICANS: TENAYA

It was their raids on miners, prospectors, andscattered storekeepers, that in 1851 led to the formationof a little volunteer army known as Savage'sMariposa Battalion. This company went up intothe as yet unpenetrated mountains in pursuit of theYosemite 'Grizzlies' and to their overwhelmingastonishment burst into the hitherto undiscoveredvalley. In the fighting that followed, the Indianswere defeated, and part of them, including the ChiefTenaya, captured. The prisoners were taken to theSan Joaquin Valley and put on a reservation. Herethey kept the peace, but were in great distress of mindon account of their deprivation of the natural foodsto which they were accustomed in their own haunts,as well as owing to their enforced contiguity to alienor hostile tribes. Tenaya pleaded to be let off. Hewas finally released, returned to Yosemite, and withinfour years was followed by all the surviving membersof the band. The old chief did not long survive: hewas killed by the Monos. He was not only a bravewarrior but an unusual personality, who maintainedhis authority over his people by his native influenceand by the respect which he commanded rather thanby any legal position.

MARRIAGE

The Miwok social customs were numerous, andmany of them strangely different from our own.The curious system of intermarrying divisions broughtit about that a person always knew automatically towhich moiety any given blood relative belonged. Hisfather, his father's father, his brothers and sisters, hischildren (if he were a man), his son's children, and hisuncles and aunts on the father's side, were always ofhis own 'side.' His mother, her father, his wife, hisfather-in-law, his daughter-in law, and his daughter'schildren, inevitably belonged to the opposite division.His mother's mother, however, was always on hisown side of the line-up. A woman differed from aman in that her children always belonged to theopposite division. Cousins were divided betweenthe two sides according to whether the connectionbetween them was through the male or the femaleline.

The dual totemic division was reflected in thepersonal names also. Any man, woman, or child, ifhis or her name referred to coyote or deer or beaveror otter or crane or salmon or salamander, or evenindirectly alluded to these animals, was therebydesignated as forming part of the water division. Onthe other hand, if his name had any reference to bearor wildcat or squirrel or raccoon or raven or a host ofother animals he was a 'landsman.'

A curious custom was that while in general marriagewith any blood relative, even of the seventh degree,was absolutely prohibited, an exception was made infavor of certain first cousins. Such cousins were infact more or less expected to marry, if there was nosatisfactory reason to the contrary. Which cousinswere available for marriage, depended on the dualdivision principle. A man could never marry hisfather's brother's daughter, because the two brothers,and therefore their children, would belong to the samedivision. Cousins sprung from two sisters were also,ineligible, because, even though women did not transmitdescent to their children, sisters were forced tomate with husbands of the opposite moiety; consequentlytheir offspring would also be of the same descentand ineligible to one another. The daughter ofone's mother's brother, however, was looked upon asone's natural spouse. A simple calculation will showthat such a cousin must always be of the opposite,division from oneself.

The newly wedded man was expected to showdeference to his wife's parents by avoiding them asmuch as possible, especially the mother-in-law; andhis wife behaved similarly toward his mother and father.The young people did not look their elders in the faceor speak to them. If communication was necessary,the husband would address himself to his wife, and shein turn would repeat the statement to her mother, whowould make the necessary answer by the same route,even though all three might be sitting in the samelodge. For a young man to do otherwise, would bethe grossest breach of decorum, and the old lady wouldno doubt complain to her friends that her daughterseemed to have married a man lacking in all proprietyand affection. This is another custom which theIndians assume is self-evident, and when asked for areason they can give none except that they would bemortally ashamed to behave otherwise.

BABIES

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When a child is born, both father and mother havecertain taboes imposed upon them. The man maynot hunt nor do other than the necessary work, andboth parent's sit as quietly as possible about the house.After this follows a longer period during which theyare free to resume normal occupations but must noteat certain kinds of food under penalty of injury tothe health of the child.

The Miwok baby is put into a frame or 'carrier,' asort of flat, hooded basket woven of slender sticks.In this it spends the greater part of the first twelvemonths of its life, and is easily carried about by themother. The baby carrier has the further advantageof seeming to keep the infant still and contented. It isa notorious fact that Indian babies cry much less thanwhite ones, and the native mothers declare that if theyremove the children from their carriers the kickingabout of legs and arms soon induces restlessness, discontent,and bawling. The woven hood of each ofthese tiny cradles is ornamented with a little patternwhich differs according to sex. Zigzags or diagonalstripes show that the inmate is a boy, whereas a girl isindicated by a pattern of diamonds.

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Handbook of Yosemite National Park (1921)
by A. L. Kroeber

Next: Ideals and Policy of the National Park Service•Contents•Previous: History of Yosemite

INDIANS OF YOSEMITE

By A. L. Kroeber

Professor of Anthropology and Curator of the Anthropological
Museum, University of California

TheIndians of Yosemite belong to a group or familyknown as the Miwok who, before the white man came,owned the tract from the Cosumnes River on the northto the Fresno on the south, and from the crest of theSierra Nevada to the edge of the San Joaquin Valley.The name Miwok is not strictly a tribal appellation; itis simply the word in the language of these Indianswhich means 'people.' In default of any specificdesignation for them, this term Miwok has beenapplied in distinction from other groups of aborigines.Of such groups, there may be mentioned as neighbors:the Maidu to the north in the Sierra; the Yokuts to thesouth in the foothills and to the southwest in the SanJoaquin Valley; and the Mono to the south in the highSierra, and to the east in Owens Valley and aboutMono Lake. Excepting the Mono (who are an offshootfrom the Paiutes and other Shoshoneans ofNevada and the Great Basin country) the othergroups of Indians adjacent to the Miwok are verysimilar to them in physical type and customs, and evenshow a probable, although distant, relationship tothem in speech. In short, the Miwok are typical andrepresentative California Indians, and in this capacityform part of the large body of tribes known as 'Diggers.'This is, however, a misleading name; partlybecause it carries a tinge of contempt, and still morebecause it lumps together a variety of nationalitiesthat sometimes differed pretty thoroughly in theirspeech or were even unaware of one another's existence.For this reason the more accurate terms Miwok,Maidu, and Yokuts are preferable.

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ORIGIN

The origin of these Sierra Nevada tribes is notdefinitely known. There can, however, be no seriousdoubt that they form part of the generic AmericanIndian race and that their ultimate origin must besought wherever the source of this division of mankindmay have lain. While no one is yet in a position tospeak dogmatically on this matter, all indicationspoint to the Indians having come at some time in thefar past from Asia, probably by the Bering Strait andAlaska route. It is clear that in his bodily type theIndian more nearly resembles the Mongolian of EasternAsia than any other variety of the human species.The long, straight, stiff hair, one of the most valuablemarks in race classification, is alone sufficient to establisha strong presumption in this direction. As towhen this migration of the first inhabitants of Americaout of Asia took place, there is growing up a fairlyunanimous concensus among anthropologists that thismovement must have occurred at about the time thatthe Old Stone Age was giving place to the New inEurope; that is to say, in the period at which chippedstone tools were being replaced by polished ones, andthe ax, bow and arrow, textiles, agricultural implements,and domestic animals were becoming part ofthe heritage of the species. These steps in advanceare believed to have occurred about ten thousandyears ago. We may therefore say roughly that somewhereabout 8000 B.C.—with an allowance of a fewthousand years either way as a margin for error—theAmerican Indian became established on this continentand began his diffusion.

California was probably not very long in beingreached; a mode of life adapted to local conditionswas worked out, and with this the natives wereapparently content, and their development progressedonly slowly. They have left some traces of theiroccupancy in ancient village sites, shell mounds, andthe like. Here the less perishable of their utensils,such as mortars, pestles, pipes, knives, arrow points,awls, beads, and other objects of stone, bone, and soforth, have been preserved. In one of the mostfavorable localities on the shores of San FranciscoBay careful computations have been made as to theage of these deposits, with the result that the lowerlevels of the shell mounds there have been estimatedto date back at least 3000 years. The implements atthese lower levels are ruder than those found near thetops of the mounds; but they are after all of the sametype and even rather similar to those used by themodern Indians of the State, including the Miwok.We are therefore justified in assuming that nativecustoms evolved very slowly in California, and thatthe ancestors of the Miwok and of the YosemiteIndians for a very long time past have lived verymuch in the manner and under the conditions inwhich they were discovered by the whites seventyyears ago.

DECREASE OF NUMBERS

The Miwok probably numbered at least tenthousand, but the population decreased with terrifyingrapidity after the advent of the white man. Someof the nearer groups of them were taken to the FranciscanMissions on the coast and there died off or becamemixed with other tribes. The miner and rancherquickly overran the Miwok habitat after 1849. TheIndian was crowded into the less desirable nooks; hisnative food supply was preëmpted; whiskey and newdiseases against which he had no immunity wereintroduced and resulted in a startling mortality; andthe general change in mode of life—new types ofhabitations, clothing, diet, labor, etc.—accentuatedthe effect of these diseases. The consequence wasthat in the sixty years between their first serious contactwith the white man until the census of 1910, theMiwok lost more than ninety percent. of their numbers.This census, which may not be wholly complete butwas by far the most accurate ever made as regardsIndians, enumerates only about seven hundred ofthem, and of these a fair proportion are mixed bloods.The number is still shrinking, but fortunately with lessrapidity than formerly. The Indian has begun toadapt himself to civilized life, and has acquired someresistance to our diseases. The Miwok therefore bidfair to maintain themselves as a diminishing remnantfor some time longer, and quite likely even a smallfraction of them may survive permanently.

Indian Casino Near Yosemite National Park Reservations

The Miwok were not divided into tribes in the usualsense of the word. They recognized very little politicalauthority. They were broken up into small localgroups, little larger than village communities, each ofwhich admitted the headship of some chief and allowedim a rather poorly defined amount of influence ontheir conduct. These numerous little bodies namedeach other, generally, after the localities which theyinhabited. Thus the Yosemite Indians as a bodywere ordinarily known to the other Miwok as theAwanichi, after Awani, the largest or best knownvillage site in the Valley, located not far from the footof Yosemite Falls. In the same way a group south ofYosemite was called the Pohonichi, because in summerthey ranged northward to the Valley in the region ofBridalveil Creek, the famous falls of which are knownas Pohono.

FOOD: THE ACORN

The Yosemite Indians were in the hunting stage;that is, they never farmed nor raised domestic animals.Actually, however, only a small part of their diet camefrom game. They probably took as many pounds offish each year as of animal flesh, and a still largerportion of their food was wild vegetable products.Among these the acorn was preëminent, and evento-day the caches or bins for the storage of thesenutritious nuts can occasionally be seen in the Valley.These are rude affairs, eight or ten feet in height, constructedof brush much like a long and deep bird'snest, and set between four or five posts to keep thereceptacle and its contents off the ground. They fulfilltheir function of food conservation with onlymoderate success, since one rarely approaches one ofthese caches without seeing a squirrel run out from ahole which it has wormed through the brush walls.Acorns, however, are plentiful in most parts of Californiaand before the American introduced hogs theywere superabundant, so that the Indians could affordto share part of their crop with these unbidden visitorsand still have enough left for their own needs.

Acorns contain more or less tannin. The Indianwomen leached this out with hot water after the nutshad been shelled and pounded with a pestle in a stonemortar. The latter usually was nothing more than ahole in the surface of some convenient outcrop ofgranite. Frequently a number of these mortar holeswere assembled in one spot; these were roofed overwith branches, and in the shade of such an arbor theIndian women were wont to gather for hours at a timeto wield the heavy pestle and meanwhile indulge in thegossip of which they were not less fond than theirCaucasian sisters. After the acorns were pulverized,the meal was sifted and then cooked in baskets into athin mush or gruel—the famous 'acorn soup' whichwas the staff of life to most of the California Indians.As pottery and iron vessels were unknown, cookinghad of necessity to be done in water-tight baskets. Abasket cannot of course be set over a fire, so theIndian woman had perforce to bring the fire into herfood, as it were. This she did by heating stones aboutthe size of her fist, picking these up with a pair ofsticks, and dropping them into the liquid, to whichthey communicated their heat until the mass boiled,The stones were then removed and the gruel was readyfor consumption.

THE BOW: HUNTING AND WAR

The Miwok bow was from three to four feet longand had its back heavily covered with a layer of sinewsto give added toughness and elasticity. It was arather narrow weapon, and the sinew was thickenedat the ends and then curled back on itself in a characteristicshape. Such at least was the bow used inwarfare and for hunting large game. For rabbits,gophers, and birds, which can be approached closely,a ruder weapon without the sinew backing sufficed.For such purposes, too, the arrow was often a mereshaft, whereas the real hunting and war bow shotarrows which were foreshafted and tipped with delicatepoints of flint or obsidian. The latter material, ablackish, volcanic glass, the Miwok obtained by tradefrom the Mono Indians.

With all its inferiority to firearms, the bow is apowerful instrument within its effective range. Agood weapon speeds an arrow with an initial velocityof 120 feet per second. It has definite killing power upto fifty yards, and at double that distance can easilyinflict wounds that subsequently prove fatal. It tearsthe tissues more than a modern bullet, and frequentlyproduces internal hemorrhages from which the victimbleeds to death, or which so weaken game thatit can be followed up and overtaken. The longestattested flight for an arrow is more than a quarter of amile, but this record was made with a compositeTurkish bow and especial long range arrows. TheIndians never attempted shooting over such distances.They depended rather on knowing the habits of deerand elk and creeping up on them. A favorite devicewas for the hunter to cover himself with a deer hideand set on his head a stuffed deer's head. In this wayhe attracted the curiosity of his quarry without alarmingit, and was often able to approach very close to it.

When the Miwok fought, which was not very often, itmost frequently took on the form of a feud for revenge.They usually shot at each other at fairly long range;enough, at any rate, to make possible the dodging ofarrows. Each line of warriors therefore capered anddanced about to render it difficult for their opponentsto take aim, and jerked forward and sidewise as theysaw arrows coming. As might be expected, casualtieswere rather light. It was only when one party couldambush another, or pounce on a settlement asleep justbefore daybreak, that fatalities would run high.

HABITATIONS

The houses of the Yosemite and other MiwokIndians were rude affairs, built, according to locationand abundance of materials, either of thatch, slabs ofbark, or with a covering of earth. In Yosemite itselfthe cedar-bark house predominated. This was a conicallean-to with the slabs laid on several deep, andwhile not entirely wind-proof it afforded reasonableshelter. Most of the huts were small, probably notover ten or twelve feet in diameter. One or two ofthem may still be seen at the time of this writing,though they present rather a sorry appearance ofgunnysacks, worn-out quilts, and pieces of sawnlumber mixed in with the bark slabs.

In the lower foothills, the native house was morefrequently of the wigwam type, thatched with grass,rushes, or brush; and in parts of the San JoaquinValley the earth lodge was typical. This was moreor less excavated and covered with a heavy layer ofearth laid on a roof of poles and brush supported bystout timbers. The Miwok used the earth lodge mainlyfor their dance- and sweat-houses. The formerwere large affairs up to forty or more feet in diameter.The latter were much smaller edifices in which the mendaily sweated themselves for their health and physicalcomfort. The Yosemite Indians were about at theedge of the habit of building earth-covered dancehouses. The more northerly Miwok and the tribesbeyond used them regularly in every village of anyconsequence, whereas the Yokuts, to the south ofYosemite, did not erect earth lodges.

THE NAME YOSEMITE

The word 'Yosemite' means Grizzly Bear in theMiwok language. Its more exact form is 'üzümati'or'ühümati.' The name became definitely attachedto the Valley, and to the band of Indians that made ittheir headquarters, from the time of their first contactwith Americans. There are several explanations. Onestory has it that an unarmed young Indian fought offa fierce grizzly bear with only a stick, and that thisexploit led to the adoption of the name as a sort ofheraldic crest by his group. Somehow this legendgives the impression of white man's imagination; itdoes not have the true ring of Indian tradition.Another account is that Tenaya (who was the chief ofthe Yosemite band at the time of the discovery andwhose name is perpetuated in that of the canyonleading into the Valley) and his people lived in acountry infested with bears. In addition, the bandwas reputed to consist of unusually fierce warriors.Therefore the sobriquet 'Grizzlies' was bestowedupon them by the neighboring tribes. This storyalso does not seem wholly in accord with knownprinciples of Indian nomenclature; although Dr. C.Hart Merriam says that the inhabitants of Hokokwila,the native village where the Sentinel Hotel now stands,were called 'Yohamite,' that is, 'Ühümati' orGrizzly Bear. The true explanation of the name ofthe Valley is probably to be found in a peculiar socialinstitution which the Yosemite Indians shared withthe other Miwok.

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This entire nation is everywhere divided into twogroups or 'moieties' or halves, as we might call them,which intermarry. The first social law of theseIndians is that a man must always take to wife awoman from the other moiety. The children followthe father, and whether boys or girls are restrictedin their choice of wife or husband to the secondmoiety, that of their mother. In this way the lineageis carried on uninterruptedly generation aftergeneration.

These two intermarrying halves of the Miwoknation have the elements land and water as theirdesignations or totems, and are known as Tunuka andKikua. The division is made more picturesque byassigning every known species of animal and plant toone or the other division. Thus the bear and mostland animals and birds belong to the land side. Fishes,water animals, and plants and a few exceptional onesfrom the land—especially the deer and coyote—areassociated with water. In some parts of the Miwokcountry the people therefore speak of the 'Blue Jay'and 'Bullfrog' instead of the land and water divisions.In the Yosemite region it was customary to denominatethe land side 'Grizzly Bears' and the water side'Coyotes.' Furthermore, within Yosemite Valley, allthe villages on the north side of the Merced River weresupposed to belong to the Grizzly Bear division, andthose on the south the Coyote. It seems more thanprobable that this local name of one of these two sidesor divisions came to be applied, through some misunderstandingon the part of the whites, to all theIndians of the valley, and then to the valley itself.

[Editor's note:For the correct origin of the word Yosemite see'Origin of the Word Yosemite.'—DEA]

VILLAGES IN YOSEMITE

The points on the floor of Yosemite at which theIndians at one time or another lived or camped arenumerous. Dr. C. Hart Merriam, the greatest livingauthority on these people, enumerates about fortysuch spots and supplies the information which heobtained about them and verified from the Indians.The principal sites are, in order down stream on thenorth side of the Merced and proceeding up streamagain on the south side: Wiskala, at the foot of RoyalArches; Yowachki, near the mouth of Indian Canyon(this site is still occupied by a few families); Awaniand Kumini, near Yosemite Falls, the former being themore important, in fact recognized as the largest andmost permanent settlement in the Valley in aboriginaldays; Hakaya, near the Three Brothers; Kisi andChuchakala, opposite the last, on the south side of theriver; Loya, at Sentinel Rock; Hokokwila, where theSentinel Hotel now stands; Tuyuyuyu, near theLe Conte Memorial Lodge; and Omato, between CampCurry and the Happy Isles.

It should be said, however, that these villages werepreëminently summer encampments. Now and thena few families with an unusually favorable stock ofsupplies hoarded up, might remain in the valley fromautumn to spring, but the majority of the inhabitantsannually retreated to the canyon of the Merced Riverbelow El Portal in order to avoid the heavy snowsof the 4000-foot altitude of Yosemite. Down belowthey waited, no doubt impatiently, for spring to comeand permit them to resume occupation of the mostfavored of their hunting and food-gathering grounds.It may be added that the Indians, as their legendsclearly indicate, were pretty fully aware of the extraordinaryscenic features of the Valley, and derivedmuch satisfaction from them; although with theirnative stolidity they no doubt expressed themselvesless extravagantly than is the Caucasian habit.

The number of the band at the time of discovery isnot accurately known, but may be estimated to havebeen in the vicinity of two hundred and fifty souls.

ENCOUNTERS WITH THE AMERICANS: TENAYA

It was their raids on miners, prospectors, andscattered storekeepers, that in 1851 led to the formationof a little volunteer army known as Savage'sMariposa Battalion. This company went up intothe as yet unpenetrated mountains in pursuit of theYosemite 'Grizzlies' and to their overwhelmingastonishment burst into the hitherto undiscoveredvalley. In the fighting that followed, the Indianswere defeated, and part of them, including the ChiefTenaya, captured. The prisoners were taken to theSan Joaquin Valley and put on a reservation. Herethey kept the peace, but were in great distress of mindon account of their deprivation of the natural foodsto which they were accustomed in their own haunts,as well as owing to their enforced contiguity to alienor hostile tribes. Tenaya pleaded to be let off. Hewas finally released, returned to Yosemite, and withinfour years was followed by all the surviving membersof the band. The old chief did not long survive: hewas killed by the Monos. He was not only a bravewarrior but an unusual personality, who maintainedhis authority over his people by his native influenceand by the respect which he commanded rather thanby any legal position.

MARRIAGE

The Miwok social customs were numerous, andmany of them strangely different from our own.The curious system of intermarrying divisions broughtit about that a person always knew automatically towhich moiety any given blood relative belonged. Hisfather, his father's father, his brothers and sisters, hischildren (if he were a man), his son's children, and hisuncles and aunts on the father's side, were always ofhis own 'side.' His mother, her father, his wife, hisfather-in-law, his daughter-in law, and his daughter'schildren, inevitably belonged to the opposite division.His mother's mother, however, was always on hisown side of the line-up. A woman differed from aman in that her children always belonged to theopposite division. Cousins were divided betweenthe two sides according to whether the connectionbetween them was through the male or the femaleline.

The dual totemic division was reflected in thepersonal names also. Any man, woman, or child, ifhis or her name referred to coyote or deer or beaveror otter or crane or salmon or salamander, or evenindirectly alluded to these animals, was therebydesignated as forming part of the water division. Onthe other hand, if his name had any reference to bearor wildcat or squirrel or raccoon or raven or a host ofother animals he was a 'landsman.'

A curious custom was that while in general marriagewith any blood relative, even of the seventh degree,was absolutely prohibited, an exception was made infavor of certain first cousins. Such cousins were infact more or less expected to marry, if there was nosatisfactory reason to the contrary. Which cousinswere available for marriage, depended on the dualdivision principle. A man could never marry hisfather's brother's daughter, because the two brothers,and therefore their children, would belong to the samedivision. Cousins sprung from two sisters were also,ineligible, because, even though women did not transmitdescent to their children, sisters were forced tomate with husbands of the opposite moiety; consequentlytheir offspring would also be of the same descentand ineligible to one another. The daughter ofone's mother's brother, however, was looked upon asone's natural spouse. A simple calculation will showthat such a cousin must always be of the opposite,division from oneself.

The newly wedded man was expected to showdeference to his wife's parents by avoiding them asmuch as possible, especially the mother-in-law; andhis wife behaved similarly toward his mother and father.The young people did not look their elders in the faceor speak to them. If communication was necessary,the husband would address himself to his wife, and shein turn would repeat the statement to her mother, whowould make the necessary answer by the same route,even though all three might be sitting in the samelodge. For a young man to do otherwise, would bethe grossest breach of decorum, and the old lady wouldno doubt complain to her friends that her daughterseemed to have married a man lacking in all proprietyand affection. This is another custom which theIndians assume is self-evident, and when asked for areason they can give none except that they would bemortally ashamed to behave otherwise.

BABIES

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When a child is born, both father and mother havecertain taboes imposed upon them. The man maynot hunt nor do other than the necessary work, andboth parent's sit as quietly as possible about the house.After this follows a longer period during which theyare free to resume normal occupations but must noteat certain kinds of food under penalty of injury tothe health of the child.

The Miwok baby is put into a frame or 'carrier,' asort of flat, hooded basket woven of slender sticks.In this it spends the greater part of the first twelvemonths of its life, and is easily carried about by themother. The baby carrier has the further advantageof seeming to keep the infant still and contented. It isa notorious fact that Indian babies cry much less thanwhite ones, and the native mothers declare that if theyremove the children from their carriers the kickingabout of legs and arms soon induces restlessness, discontent,and bawling. The woven hood of each ofthese tiny cradles is ornamented with a little patternwhich differs according to sex. Zigzags or diagonalstripes show that the inmate is a boy, whereas a girl isindicated by a pattern of diamonds.

DEATH AND MOURNING

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When a Miwok died, mourning and wailing wereintense. His name must under no circumstances bespoken. To do so might invoke the ghost, and wouldin any event be considered as the deepest of all possibleinsults by his relatives. A widow cropped or burnedher hair very short, smeared melted pitch over it, andalso covered her face and breast with the same material.During the whole period of mourning she wasnot allowed to wash these parts of her body. Aftera few months of pitch and dirt, her appearance wasa startling one: sufficiently forbidding, no doubt, todeter any prospective suitor. For the whole of thefirst year of her widowhood, also, she kept silence, orspoke only in low whispers to a female relative whenthe occasion was imperative.

Once a year, in each region of the Miwok country,usually in late summer or autumn, a great commemorativemourning ceremony for the dead was held,which lasted amid wailing and singing for severalnights. Toward daybreak on the last morningimmense accumulations of food and property werethrown into the fire by the mourners. Those of thedeceased who had been of special rank, or particularlybeloved by their survivors, were represented by rudeeffigies which were also consumed in the blaze. Afterthis the mourners of the land side were ceremoniallywashed by the water people, and vice versa, to signifytheir cleansing from the period of grief and from therestrictions which they had been under. For thewidow it was also a much needed literal cleansing.

MEDICINE-MEN

When an Indian became sick, a shaman or medicineman was called in. This individual had acquired hispower from spirits. He was believed to possess thepower of clairvoyance. After dancing, singing, manipulatingthe patient, and other preliminaries, he woulddeclare that the illness was due to the infraction ofsome religious taboo, or that some evil-minded medicine-man,a witch or wizard, had managed to lodgesome foreign object or noxious little animal in the bodyof the sufferer.

He then proceeded to remove the poison by suckingthe part affected, and finally pretended to remove alittle mass of straw, a wisp of hair, a dead grasshopperor lizard, or something of that sort. The patient andhis relatives of course felt immeasurably relieved, and,confidence having been regained, nature in most casesconcluded the recovery.

If, however, the medicine-man was unfortunate andlost several patients, especially if these died in rapidsuccession, he paid dearly for his preëminence. TheIndians were so convinced of the complete power ofthese shamans, that they gave them entire credit forevery cure that happened. Consequently they werequite logical when they reasoned that the death of apatient must be due to the unwillingness or evildisposition of the practitioner. One or two fatalitiesmight be pardoned as due to mere incompetence; butsuspicion would be gathering, and after his third orfourth loss, the medicine-man's life was worth little.The relatives of his deceased patients were simplywaiting for an opportunity to ambush and murderhim, and he must be a wary or powerful man indeedto escape permanently. Even to-day an occasionalmurder among the Sierra Nevada tribes can be tracedto a lingering of this old custom.

MYTHS AND ORIGIN BELIEFS

The myths and legends of the Yosemite band restedon the same ideas as those current among the otherMiwok. From these latter we gather that it wascurrently believed by the natives that this earthwas peopled six successive times. The first world wasdominated by a cannibal giant Uwulin who graduallydevoured its inhabitants until little Fly discovered atiny vulnerable spot in his heel—like that of Achilles—anddespatched the malefactor. The people of thesecond world were not much better off, for they werestolen away by an immense bird, a sort of Roc, namedYelelkin, and the remainder were persecuted by antsuntil they were driven away. The third world waspeopled by beings who were half human and halfanimal, and came to an end with their transformationinto complete animals—a sort of retrograde evolution.The fourth race was vexed by its chief, Skunk, whokept for himself all meat, until his people succeededin destroying him by strategy. In his death agoniesSkunk upheaved the mountains. This race was alsotransformed into animals. As to the fifth world,tradition is obscure, but the sixth peopling wasaccomplished by Coyote. The earth was at this timecovered with water, but Coyote had Frog dive andbring up a bit of soil from which he created land. Hethen caused vegetation to grow up and made humanbeings. He and his associates, who up to this timehad been more or less human or even superhumanin attributes, then became changed into animals likethose which we see to-day.

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In the story of the origin of death among mankind,Coyote also figures. His plan was to have peoplecovered up for four days and then arise reborn in theprime of manhood. For a while this arrangementworked to the satisfaction of everyone. Once, however,a person died just as Meadow-lark took to himselfa wife. After a day or two, odors of decay began toarise from the blanket-covered pile and penetratedto the hut of the honeymoon couple. Meadow-larkresented having his bliss disturbed in this way, andproclaimed that a much, better plan would be to burnup the source of the stench and leave everyone inpeace. His counsel prevailed and the first cremationtook place, which the Miwok have adhered to eversince; but with it there passed away the habit ofhuman lives being renewed over and over. Althoughthey believe this tale, the Miwok seem to bear noresentment against Meadow-lark.

The greatest hero of Miwok legends is Wekwek, theFalcon, son of Condor or according to other versions ofYayil, and grandson of Coyote. Falcon fought andovercame a destructive giant, Kilak; escaped a firethat consumed the surface of the world; and underwentnumberless other adventures. More than oncehe was killed and restored to life, and at other times hebrought back among the living his father, his sister, orsome friend. The Miwok never tire of telling aboutthis character, who impersonates all that they conceiveof daring and magic and skill in the days of long ago.

LEGENDS OF YOSEMITE

About Yosemite Valley proper there are a number ofIndian stories which have repeatedly been recordedwith but little variation, so that they may be consideredauthentic. The favorite one tells of a womannamed Tiseyak who lived far down the Merced River,in or near the plains. Having quarreled with herhusband, she ran away eastward, creating the course ofthe present stream and causing oak trees and otherfood-bearing plants to spring up along her route. InYosemite Valley her husband overtook her and beather soundly. In the scuffle, the hooded bady-cradlewhich she was carrying was thrown across to the northwall of the canyon, where the bent hood can still beseen in the Royal Arches. A globular basket whichshe had brought with her, landed bottom upward andbecame Basket or North Dome. The husband, whois known in the story as Nangas, 'her husband,'turned into North Dome or Washington Tower,whereas Tiseyak herself became Half Dome, the darkstreaks on the sheer cliff of this great peak being thetears which her pain and humiliation had caused tostream down her face. The several versions vary indetails, but in substance the tale is told by all theYosemite Miwok as here outlined. It must beremembered that oral tradition can never beabsolutely consistent in the mouths of separateindividuals.

El Capitan, it is said, was originally a small rock.Once, long ago, a she-bear went to sleep on top withher two cubs. When they awoke in the morning, therock had grown into the present tremendous cliff.Neither they nor the people of the village below knewhow to rescue the unfortunates; until at last the Inchor Measuring Worm succeeded in humping his way upthe cliff. By this time, however, the poor bear andher cubs had starved to death, and he could do nomore than bring down their bones for cremation bytheir mourning relatives.

Measuring Worm was now possessed by the spiritof adventure. He reclimbed El Capitan, stretchedhimself clear across to the opposite side of the Valley,and drew himself over. Then he recrossed. Thissport, however, must have weakened the walls of thecanyon, for it was not long before they began to caveand the inhabitants were obliged to flee down theriver in order to save themselves. The Indians saythat before this catastrophe the Valley was evendeeper than it is at present.

Waterfalls are dreaded by the Miwok, and bothYosemite and Bridalveil Falls are believed to be inhabitedby spirits, those in the former being knownas Poloti, and in the latter as Pohono. They causegusts of wind which are likely to whirl into the fallspeople who venture too close. Once the Poloticaptured a girl. She had gone to Yosemite Creekfrom Awani or a neighboring camp to bring backa basket of water. When she dipped up, it wasfull of snakes. These the spirits had caused toenter the vessel so that she might abandon her accustomedspot and move farther upstream. Eachtime she dipped her basket, the unfortunate girlfound more vermin in it, and so gradually she wenthigher and higher up until she reached the pool atthe foot of the falls, when a sudden violent gust blewher in.

It was with such tales as this that the YosemiteIndians used to beguile the long winter evenings whilesitting about the fire.

REFERENCES

Barrett, S. A., 1908. 'The Geography and Dialects of theMiwok Indians.' Univ. of Calif. Publications in AmericanArchaeology and Ethnology, vol. vi., No. 2.
1919. 'Myths of the Southern Sierra Miwok.' Univ. ofCalif. Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology,vol. xvi., No. 1.

Clark, Galen, 1904.Indians of Yosemite Valley and Vicinity.,(Galen Clark, Yosemite) 110 pp., illus.

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Gifford, E. W., 1916. 'Miwok Moieties.' Univ. of Calif.Publ. in American Archaeology and Ethnology, vol. xii., No. 4
1917. 'Miwok Myths,' Univ. of Calif. Publ. in AmericanArchaeology and Ethnology, vol. xii., No. 8.

Kroeber, A. L., 1916. 'California Place Names of IndianOrigin.' Univ. of Calif. Publications in American Archaeologyand Ethnology, vol. xii., No. 2.

Merriam, C. Hart, 1910.The Dawn of the World: Myths andWeird Tales Told by the Mewan Indians of California.(A. H. Clark Co., Cleveland), pp., illus.
1917. 'Indian Village and Camp Sites in Yosemite Valley.'Sierra Club Bulletin, vol. x., No. 2.

Powers, Stephen, 1877.'Tribes of California.' Contributionsto North American Ethnology, vol. iii.

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